Maximiliano Hernández Martínez
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Maximiliano Hernández Martínez (20 October 1882 – 15 May 1966) was a Salvadoran military officer and politician who served as the
president President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) *President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Automobiles * Nissan President, a 1966–2010 Japanese ful ...
of
El Salvador El Salvador (; , meaning " The Saviour"), officially the Republic of El Salvador ( es, República de El Salvador), is a country in Central America. It is bordered on the northeast by Honduras, on the northwest by Guatemala, and on the south b ...
from 4 December 1931 to 28 August 1934 in an acting capacity and again in an official capacity from 1 March 1935 until his resignation on 9 May 1944. He was the leader of El Salvador during
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
. While he served as President
Arturo Araujo Arturo Araujo Fajardo (1878 – December 1, 1967) was the president of El Salvador from March 1, 1931, to December 2, 1931. He was overthrown in a military coup led by junior officers, and was forced to flee the country for Guatemala. An agricul ...
's
vice president A vice president, also director in British English, is an officer in government or business who is below the president (chief executive officer) in rank. It can also refer to executive vice presidents, signifying that the vice president is on t ...
and
defense minister A defence minister or minister of defence is a cabinet official position in charge of a ministry of defense, which regulates the armed forces in sovereign states. The role of a defence minister varies considerably from country to country; in som ...
, a directorate seized power during a palace coup and afterwards named Hernández Martínez president of El Salvador. He served as president for almost 12 years and ruled the nation with an authoritarian one-party state led by the fascistic and anti-communist
National Pro Patria Party The National Party of the Fatherland ( es, Partido Nacional "Pro-Patria"), usually translated as the National Pro Patria Party or simply the Pro Patria Party, was a far-right political party which was the sole-legal political party in El Salva ...
. His rule was marked by rigged and fraudulent electionsWilliams, Philip J. and Knut Walter (1997) ''Militarization and demilitarization in El Salvador's transition to democracy'' Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, p27 and brutality, most notably the 1932 Salvadoran peasant massacre, known as
La Matanza ''La Matanza'' (Spanish for "The Massacre") refers to a communist- indigenous rebellion in El Salvador that took place between 22 and 25 January 1932. It was succeeded by large-scale government killings in western El Salvador, which resulted ...
("The Massacre"). Under his rule,
El Salvador El Salvador (; , meaning " The Saviour"), officially the Republic of El Salvador ( es, República de El Salvador), is a country in Central America. It is bordered on the northeast by Honduras, on the northwest by Guatemala, and on the south b ...
joined the Allied Powers during
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
on 8 December 1941 following the
Bombing of Pearl Harbor The attack on Pearl HarborAlso known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service upon the United States against the naval base at Pearl Harbor in Honolulu, Territory of Haw ...
. He modernized the nation through infrastructure projects such as the
Pan-American Highway The Pan-American Highway (french: (Auto)route panaméricaine/transaméricaine; pt, Rodovia/Auto-estrada Pan-americana; es, Autopista/Carretera/Ruta Panamericana) is a network of roads stretching across the Americas and measuring about in to ...
and the Cuscatlán Bridge. He also established the Central Reserve Bank, but he was eventually forced to resign on 9 May 1944 after a military mutiny the month prior and massive civil unrest.


Early life

Maximiliano Hernández Martínez was born on 20 October 1882 in San Matías, La Libertad,
El Salvador El Salvador (; , meaning " The Saviour"), officially the Republic of El Salvador ( es, República de El Salvador), is a country in Central America. It is bordered on the northeast by Honduras, on the northwest by Guatemala, and on the south b ...
. His parents were Raymundo Hernández and Petronila Martínez. He studied secondary education at the
National Institute of El Salvador National may refer to: Common uses * Nation or country ** Nationality – a ''national'' is a person who is subject to a nation, regardless of whether the person has full rights as a citizen Places in the United States * National, Maryland, c ...
. After finishing his secondary education studies, he entered the Polytechnic School of Guatemala, where he obtained the degree of Sub-Lieutenant. He returned to El Salvador during the presidency of General Tomás Regalado Romero. Upon his return, he studied at the Facility of Jurisprudence and Social Sciences at the
University of El Salvador The University of El Salvador or Universidad de El Salvador (UES) is the oldest and the most prominent university institution in El Salvador. It serves as the national university of the country. The main campus, Ciudad Universitaria, is located ...
(UES). He was promoted to lieutenant on 17 November 1903; to captain on 23 August 1906; to captain major the same year, during the Third Totoposte War with Guatemala where Hernández Martínez fought under Regalado Romero; to lieutenant colonel on 6 May 1909; and finally to colonel on 15 June 1914. On 14 July 1919, the National Legislative Assembly promoted him to the rank of brigadier general and the legislative decree was sanctioned by the president Jorge Meléndez Ramírez on 17 September. He became
Minister of National Defense A defence minister or minister of defence is a cabinet official position in charge of a ministry of defense, which regulates the armed forces in sovereign states. The role of a defence minister varies considerably from country to country; in som ...
on 1 March 1931.


Rise to power

In the 1931 presidential election he was initially a candidate for his
National Republican Party The National Republican Party, also known as the Anti-Jacksonian Party or simply Republicans, was a political party in the United States that evolved from a conservative-leaning faction of the Democratic-Republican Party that supported John Qu ...
. He joined forces with
Arturo Araujo Arturo Araujo Fajardo (1878 – December 1, 1967) was the president of El Salvador from March 1, 1931, to December 2, 1931. He was overthrown in a military coup led by junior officers, and was forced to flee the country for Guatemala. An agricul ...
of the Labor Party, running on a reformist platform. The ticket won the election with a 46.65% margin and 106,777 votes in what was considered the first free multiparty
election An election is a formal group decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual or multiple individuals to hold public office. Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy has opera ...
in Salvadoran history and the last for over half a century. The reason for the coup was that military personnel had not been paid their salary, although it is sometimes attributed to the fall in prices of coffee abroad. The reality is that officers were not paid and the Finance Minister had only paid the police, who remained loyal to the president. The army officers were angry and ousted President Araujo on 2 December 1931. In its place, the military officers established the
Civic Directory The Civic Directory ( es, Directorio Cívico) was a military junta which governed El Salvador from 2 to 4 December 1931. The junta was composed of twelve members of the Armed Forces of El Salvador from the Salvadoran Army, army, Salvadoran Air ...
. Two days later on 4 December, Maximiliano Hernández Martínez became Acting President of El Salvador. The
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
did not recognize the legitimacy of Hernández Martínez's rise to power or government due to the 1923 Central American Treaty of Peace and Amity and only recognized his government after his government put down the communist uprising in early 1932. Hernández Martínez eventually denounced El Salvador's membership of the treaty on 26 December 1932.


Presidency


La Matanza

Legislative elections A general election is a political voting election where generally all or most members of a given political body are chosen. These are usually held for a nation, state, or territory's primary legislative body, and are different from by-elections ( ...
were scheduled for 3–5 January 1932 and Hernández Martínez's government promised free and fair elections. To participate in the election, however, voters had to be registered in their municipalities alongside their party, thus giving the government a list of
Communist Party A communist party is a political party that seeks to realize the socio-economic goals of communism. The term ''communist party'' was popularized by the title of ''The Manifesto of the Communist Party'' (1848) by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. A ...
members. The communists won several municipalities but Hernández Martínez cancelled the election results and cancelled follow up elections scheduled for 10–12 January. Nohlen, D (2005) ''Elections in the Americas: A data handbook, Volume I'', p 277 In response to the election cancellation, many in the Salvadoran Communist Party (PCES) believed that armed insurrection was the only choice since both democracy and Hernández Martínez's authoritarian government had both failed. The rebellion was planned for mid-January. Meanwhile, indigenous peasants also planned a revolt of their own to protest the poor living conditions in western
El Salvador El Salvador (; , meaning " The Saviour"), officially the Republic of El Salvador ( es, República de El Salvador), is a country in Central America. It is bordered on the northeast by Honduras, on the northwest by Guatemala, and on the south b ...
. On 22 January 1932, peasants in western El Salvador attacked military barracks and wealthy estates and killed around 100 people. The rebels, led by
Feliciano Ama José Feliciano de Jesús Ama Trampa (1881 – 28 January 1932) was an indigenous peasant leader, a Pipil from Izalco in El Salvador, who participated and died during La Matanza. Ama had his lands taken by the wealthy coffee planting family, ...
,
Farabundo Martí Agustín Farabundo Martí Rodríguez (; 5 May 1893 – 1 February 1932) was a Marxist-Leninist activist and a revolutionary leader in El Salvador during ''La Matanza''. Early life Martí was born in Teotepeque, a farming community loca ...
, Mario Zapata, and Alfonso Luna, seized control of the towns of
Juayúa Juayúa is a city and municipality in the Sonsonate department of El Salvador. It is a small town up in the mountains, founded in 1577. Juayua is located in the western part of El Salvador, about 50 miles (80 kilometers) from San Salvador. H ...
, Nahuizalco,
Izalco Izalco (in Nawat: ''Itzalku'') is a municipality in the Sonsonate department of El Salvador. Volcan Izalco is an icon of the country of El Salvador, a very young Volcano on the flank of Santa Ana volcano. From when it was born in 1770 until 1 ...
, and
Tlacopan Tlacopan, also called Tacuba, was a Tepanec / Mexica altepetl on the western shore of Lake Texcoco. The site is today the neighborhood of Tacuba, in Mexico City. Etymology The name comes from Classical Nahuatl ''tlacōtl'', "stem" or "rod" and ...
. Barracks in towns such as
Ahuachapán Ahuachapán () is a city, and municipality, and the capital of the Ahuachapán Department in western El Salvador. The municipality, including the city, covers an area of 244.84 km² and as of 2007 has a population of 110,511 people. Situat ...
, Santa Tecla, and
Sonsonate Sonsonate () is a city and municipality of El Salvador. It is the capital of the department of Sonsonate; on the Sensunapan River and the Pan-American Highway from San Salvador to the Pacific port of Acajutla, south. Pop. (2007), about 71,541. E ...
resisted the attacks and remained under government control. Hernández Martínez responded quickly to the uprising in western El Salvador and ordered the
army An army (from Old French ''armee'', itself derived from the Latin verb ''armāre'', meaning "to arm", and related to the Latin noun ''arma'', meaning "arms" or "weapons"), ground force or land force is a fighting force that fights primarily on ...
to put down the revolt. He organized several of his military officers to accomplish specific tasks to crush the rebellion. General José Tomás Calderón was tasked with evicting rebels from western El Salvador, Colonel
Osmín Aguirre y Salinas Osmín Aguirre y Salinas (25 December 1889 – 17 July 1977) was a Salvadoran military officer and politician who served as the provisional president of El Salvador from 21 October 1944 until 1 March 1945. A Colonel in the Salvadoran Army, Ag ...
was to arrest communist leader
Farabundo Martí Agustín Farabundo Martí Rodríguez (; 5 May 1893 – 1 February 1932) was a Marxist-Leninist activist and a revolutionary leader in El Salvador during ''La Matanza''. Early life Martí was born in Teotepeque, a farming community loca ...
, Colonel Salvador Ochoa had to recapture Santa Tecla, and Major
Saturnino Cortez Saturnino is the Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian form of the name Saturninus. As a first name, it can refer to: * Saturnino Arrúa, Paraguayan footballer * Saturnino Herrán, Mexican painter * Saturnino Rustrián, Guatemalan road bicycle racer * ...
had to recapture
Tacuba Tacuba is a municipality in the Ahuachapán department of El Salvador. Church Of Tacuba It is located in Villa of Tacuba. It is head of the municipality of the same name in the department of Ahuachapán, at about 14 Kilometers of the city of Ahu ...
. After 72 hours, the rebellion was crushed. The specific number of victims is unknown, but estimates range from 10,000 to 40,000 for the entire rebellion. American historian Thomas Anderson says there were no more than 10,000 killed. He does accept that the military killed people without a judgement and that they were usually killed by a firing squad after being compelled to dig their own graves. Usually they only needed to be Indian, usually male, from the town, and listed as voters of the Communist party in that town. The leaders of the rebellion were all executed:
Feliciano Ama José Feliciano de Jesús Ama Trampa (1881 – 28 January 1932) was an indigenous peasant leader, a Pipil from Izalco in El Salvador, who participated and died during La Matanza. Ama had his lands taken by the wealthy coffee planting family, ...
was lynched by the Army while the communist leaders were executed by firing squad. After the conflict, survivors attempted to flee to
Guatemala Guatemala ( ; ), officially the Republic of Guatemala ( es, República de Guatemala, links=no), is a country in Central America. It is bordered to the north and west by Mexico; to the northeast by Belize and the Caribbean; to the east by H ...
. In response, Guatemalan President and dictator
Jorge Ubico Jorge Ubico Castañeda (10 November 1878 – 14 June 1946), nicknamed Number Five or also Central America's Napoleon, was a Guatemalan dictator. A general in the Guatemalan army, he was elected to the presidency in 1931, in an election where ...
ordered the Guatemalan-Salvadoran border to be closed and handed over anyone who attempted to cross to the Salvadoran army. As resolution of the conflict, the
Legislative Assembly of El Salvador The Legislative Assembly ( es, Asamblea Legislativa) is the legislative branch of the government of El Salvador. Structure The Salvadoran legislature is a unicameral body. It is made up of 84 deputies, all of whom are elected by direct popul ...
issued Legislative Decree No. 121 on 11 July 1932, which granted unconditional amnesty to anyone who committed crimes of any nature in order to "restore order, repress, persecute, punish and capture those accused of the crime of rebellion of this year."


Authoritarian presidency

Hernández Martínez's policies had various effects on the country's cultural, political, and economic life. By centralizing government, he participated in almost all decision-making, directing almost every single one of his government's activities. He distanced the military, except himself, from the civil administration of the country, resulting in military officers being a minority within his cabinet. The salaries for government officials and for the military were extremely low, compared to previous times. This discouraged military personnel from being involved in government, despite the fact that a demand for higher wages was one of the reasons the military toppled Araujo's government in 1931. However, he always preferred to have military protection, and transferred the presidential office and his family residence to the then Normal School for Boys, next to the El Zapote Barracks. He promoted economic growth based on expansion of large coffee plantations, thus benefiting landowners and initiating links between the military and the oligarchy. During his presidency, the creation of the Central Reserve Bank and the
Mortgage Bank Mortgage bank is a bank that specializes in originating and/or servicing mortgage loans. In the United States, a mortgage bank is a state-licensed banking entity that makes mortgage loans directly to consumers. The difference between a mortgage b ...
, the Salvadoran Coffee Company, the Rural Credit Box, the Cotton Cooperative, the General Directorate of Public Works, and the Social Improvement, developed a commendable work within its functions. Roads were built throughout the country such as the
Pan-American Highway The Pan-American Highway (french: (Auto)route panaméricaine/transaméricaine; pt, Rodovia/Auto-estrada Pan-americana; es, Autopista/Carretera/Ruta Panamericana) is a network of roads stretching across the Americas and measuring about in to ...
and the Flor Blanca National Stadium (now the
Estadio Jorge "Mágico" González Estadio Nacional Jorge "Mágico" González is a football stadium in San Salvador. It is named after Salvadoran star player Mágico González. The stadium has a capacity of 35,000 and was previously known as "Estadio Nacional Flor Blanca", referr ...
) where the Third Central American and Caribbean Games were held in 1935. Buildings such as the telegraph building, the castle of the former
National Guard National Guard is the name used by a wide variety of current and historical uniformed organizations in different countries. The original National Guard was formed during the French Revolution around a cadre of defectors from the French Guards. Nat ...
(current headquarters of the General Directorate of the National Civil Police), and large bridges such as the Cuscatlán Bridge over the
Lempa River The Lempa River ( es, Río Lempa) is a river in Central America. Geography Its sources are located in between the Sierra Madre and the Sierra del Merendón in southern Guatemala, near the town of Olopa. In Guatemala the river is called ''Río O ...
were built in 1942. On 23 February 1932 the Salvadoran government defaulted on its external debt and stated that it would not pay the loans if the interest was not reduced and the term extended. The net debt, that is to say without interest, was fully paid off in 1938, although the interest was not paid off until 1960. Once the debt had been paid off, Hernández Martínez proposed, reflected on a commemorative plaque placed in the Legislative Assembly, the policy of non-acquisition of international loans in the future. Despite this initiative, he also acquired loans for the construction of the
Pan-American Highway The Pan-American Highway (french: (Auto)route panaméricaine/transaméricaine; pt, Rodovia/Auto-estrada Pan-americana; es, Autopista/Carretera/Ruta Panamericana) is a network of roads stretching across the Americas and measuring about in to ...
. On the other hand, on 12 March 1932, he decreed the Moratorium Law, by which he reduced the interest of debtors facing bankruptcy. In addition, with the objective of stabilizing the value of the colón, he created the
Central Reserve Bank of El Salvador The Central Reserve Bank of El Salvador (Spanish: ''Banco Central de El Salvador'') is the central bank of El Salvador, which controls the currency rate and regulates certain economic activities within El Salvador. The bank was originally private ...
in 1934, indemnifying private banks to stop issuing money. As for policies referring directly to the population, his theosophical customs prevailed. For example, when a
smallpox Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus) which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) c ...
plague broke out in
San Salvador San Salvador (; ) is the capital and the largest city of El Salvador and its eponymous department. It is the country's political, cultural, educational and financial center. The Metropolitan Area of San Salvador, which comprises the capital i ...
, he had street lamps in the squares covered with blue paper, hoping that "invisible doctors" would save those who were destined to live. Among other things, he established that anyone who asked for a formal education should be considered a communist. He discouraged workers and employees from getting an education because, in his words, "soon there would be no more people willing to work in cleaning tasks." In July 1932, he established the Social Improvement Fund, and in October, the National Board of Social Improvement, whose main activity was to acquire homes and provide soft loans to farmers to buy them. However, this activity did not bring results expected by the population, since the beneficiaries were much fewer than what had been projected. Despite the fact that it was described as an agrarian reform, it was not, since the lands were not expropriated, but bought at a price market and sold at a lower one, using national funds that would never be reintegrated and that would pass into the hands of the landowners of the time. Homes were also built to be sold under the same conditions, although this occurred on a smaller scale. Hernández Martínez modified the Police Law of 1879, prohibiting civilians from carrying firearms, knives, machetes or slits, and making defiance of said ordinance a crime. He also established that those who did not hold legal offices or legitimate jobs would be persecuted and punished as lazy. The penalty for theft was the amputation of a hand and, in the face of recidivism, the sentence was
death Death is the irreversible cessation of all biological functions that sustain an organism. For organisms with a brain, death can also be defined as the irreversible cessation of functioning of the whole brain, including brainstem, and brain ...
by firing squad. He established strong alliances with the
Catholic Church The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
, obtaining the benefit of the two monsignors of the time, Monsignor Belloso and Monsignor Chávez y González, who were always present in political executions and who, after the 1932 uprising, offered masses in gratitude for the military victory. In military matters, he strengthened the professionalization of officers through military study scholarships, especially to Italy. He financed the construction of a war tank, armed with six heavy machine guns. On 24 April 1938,
Eberhardt Bohnstedt Eberhardt Julius Georg Waldemar Bohnstedt, also sometimes spelt Eberhard, (22 July 1886 – 3 October 1957) was a German general and commander of the 7th Infantry Division in 1939. He is most well known for being the director of the Military S ...
, a
Wehrmacht The ''Wehrmacht'' (, ) were the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It consisted of the ''Heer'' (army), the ''Kriegsmarine'' (navy) and the ''Luftwaffe'' (air force). The designation "''Wehrmacht''" replaced the previous ...
general, was appointed as director of the Salvadoran military school. In 1939, he called the
Constituent Assembly A constituent assembly (also known as a constitutional convention, constitutional congress, or constitutional assembly) is a body assembled for the purpose of drafting or revising a constitution. Members of a constituent assembly may be elected b ...
to draft and ratify a new constitution, which had provisions for the female vote, under certain conditions of social origin and level of education. In 1943, Hernández Martínez tried to increase the export tariffs to obtain more revenue for El Salvador, which harmed the relationship he had with the oligarchs.


World War II

The advent of the
Second World War World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
meant an increase in exports to the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
and the improvement of the Salvadoran economy. This allowed Hernández Martínez to carry out some social reforms and a slight redistribution of land through an agrarian program. Hernández Martínez was very attracted to the successes of the European fascist governments, especially
Hitler Adolf Hitler (; 20 April 188930 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was dictator of Germany from 1933 until his death in 1945. He rose to power as the leader of the Nazi Party, becoming the chancellor in 1933 and then ...
,
Mussolini Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (; 29 July 188328 April 1945) was an Italian politician and journalist who founded and led the National Fascist Party. He was Prime Minister of Italy from the March on Rome in 1922 until his deposition in 194 ...
, and
Franco Franco may refer to: Name * Franco (name) * Francisco Franco (1892–1975), Spanish general and dictator of Spain from 1939 to 1975 * Franco Luambo (1938–1989), Congolese musician, the "Grand Maître" Prefix * Franco, a prefix used when ref ...
. In 1938 he appointed
Eberhardt Bohnstedt Eberhardt Julius Georg Waldemar Bohnstedt, also sometimes spelt Eberhard, (22 July 1886 – 3 October 1957) was a German general and commander of the 7th Infantry Division in 1939. He is most well known for being the director of the Military S ...
, a general of the
Wehrmacht The ''Wehrmacht'' (, ) were the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It consisted of the ''Heer'' (army), the ''Kriegsmarine'' (navy) and the ''Luftwaffe'' (air force). The designation "''Wehrmacht''" replaced the previous ...
, as director of the Salvadoran military school. In addition, he opened diplomatic relations with the
Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries **Spanish cuisine Other places * Spanish, Ontario, Cana ...
dictator A dictator is a political leader who possesses absolute power. A dictatorship is a state ruled by one dictator or by a small clique. The word originated as the title of a Roman dictator elected by the Roman Senate to rule the republic in times ...
,
Francisco Franco Francisco Franco Bahamonde (; 4 December 1892 – 20 November 1975) was a Spanish general who led the Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War), Nationalist forces in overthrowing the Second Spanish Republic during the Spanish Civil War ...
and was one of the first to recognize his government. In addition, he gave diplomatic recognition to the
Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...
puppet state of
Manchukuo Manchukuo, officially the State of Manchuria prior to 1934 and the Empire of (Great) Manchuria after 1934, was a puppet state of the Empire of Japan in Northeast China, Manchuria from 1932 until 1945. It was founded as a republic in 1932 afte ...
and the
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ger ...
puppet state of the
Slovak Republic Slovakia (; sk, Slovensko ), officially the Slovak Republic ( sk, Slovenská republika, links=no ), is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the s ...
. Trade with Germany and
Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...
increased from 1935 to 1937 and El Salvador bought several planes from the Italian government for the
Salvadoran Air Force The Salvadoran Air Force ( es, Fuerza Aérea Salvadoreña, abbreviated FAS) is the air force component of the Armed Forces of El Salvador, and is an independent branch from the army and navy. Early history The Salvadoran Army Air Force ('' es, ...
since American planes were too expensive. El Salvador sent military officers to Italy for military training. From 1930 up until 1940, El Salvador imported and exported more to Germany that the United States. Fascist influence was so abundant in El Salvador that schoolchildren were taught to do the
Roman salute The Roman salute, alternatively called the Fascist salute, is a gesture in which the right arm is fully extended, facing forward, with palm down and fingers touching. In some versions, the arm is raised upward at an angle; in others, it is held ...
and 300 men imitating the Italian
Blackshirts The Voluntary Militia for National Security ( it, Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale, MVSN), commonly called the Blackshirts ( it, Camicie Nere, CCNN, singular: ) or (singular: ), was originally the paramilitary wing of the Natio ...
marching in the streets on
San Salvador San Salvador (; ) is the capital and the largest city of El Salvador and its eponymous department. It is the country's political, cultural, educational and financial center. The Metropolitan Area of San Salvador, which comprises the capital i ...
following the Italian entry into
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
in June 1940. However, under pressure from the United States, the primary coffee buyer of El Salvador, he had to abandon his sympathies and agreed to align itself alongside the
Allies An alliance is a relationship among people, groups, or states that have joined together for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose, whether or not explicit agreement has been worked out among them. Members of an alliance are called ...
of
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
on 8 December 1941 after the Japanese
Bombing of Pearl Harbor The attack on Pearl HarborAlso known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service upon the United States against the naval base at Pearl Harbor in Honolulu, Territory of Haw ...
. Likewise, German and Italian residents in El Salvador were expropriated of their lands and were sent to concentration camps, which earned them diplomatic recognition from the United States. That change in his foreign policy, as well as the repression against the communists and opponents of his government, allowed him to obtain greater support from the United States. However, the situation changed due to Hernández Martínez's refusal to receive 3,000 US soldiers to protect the
Panama Canal The Panama Canal ( es, Canal de Panamá, link=no) is an artificial waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean and divides North and South America. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a conduit ...
. The United States placed troops in the countries near the Canal, except in El Salvador, given the presidential refusal. The reason Hernández Martínez gave for rejecting the American request was that, since the arriving troops would have a percentage of
black Black is a color which results from the absence or complete absorption of visible light. It is an achromatic color, without hue, like white and grey. It is often used symbolically or figuratively to represent darkness. Black and white have o ...
soldiers, there was an imminent risk that they would reproduce in El Salvador and that they would fill El Salvador with black children. El Salvador sent no men to fight on the battlefield during the war but it did send men to perform maintenance on the
Panama Canal The Panama Canal ( es, Canal de Panamá, link=no) is an artificial waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean and divides North and South America. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a conduit ...
. During WWII, Colonel
José Castellanos Contreras José Arturo Castellanos Contreras (23 December 1893 — 18 June 1977) was a Salvadoran army colonel and diplomat who, while working as El Salvador's Consul General for Geneva during World War II, and in conjunction with a Jewish-Romanian bus ...
saved 40,000 Jews in Central Europe by providing them political asylum and fake
Salvadoran passport Salvadoran passports ( es, Pasaporte salvadoreño) are issued to citizens of El Salvador to travel outside the country. Passports are issued by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs or, if the citizen resides abroad, at the Salvadoran embassy. Besides ...
s.Call to honour El Salvador's rescuer of Jews after war role rediscovered
Rory Carroll, June 2008,
The Guardian ''The Guardian'' is a British daily newspaper. It was founded in 1821 as ''The Manchester Guardian'', and changed its name in 1959. Along with its sister papers ''The Observer'' and ''The Guardian Weekly'', ''The Guardian'' is part of the Gu ...
, retrieved 8 April 2015


Criticisms

Hernández Martínez's government was widely criticized by various sectors, focusing mainly on his theosophical practices and their repercussions on his actions as ruler. First, the general's belief that the state must have absolute power over individuals led him to convert the state as an individual controller, endowing him with extra-constitutional power over national life, giving him control of the armed forces. He had strict control of the mass media, aligning them in favor of his regime or simply closing them in the face of occasional resistance. Furthermore, he was criticized for the exile of the most important thinkers and artists of the time who did not agree with his government. The harshness of his measures and mainly his contempt for the quality of the human being led him to commit acts that would mark a precedent of violence, a prelude to what would come decades later during the
military dictatorship A military dictatorship is a dictatorship in which the military exerts complete or substantial control over political authority, and the dictator is often a high-ranked military officer. The reverse situation is to have civilian control of the m ...
. The media handling extended to the political field, creating conditions so that even abroad he was considered a democratic president. For example, he placed the
Communist Party A communist party is a political party that seeks to realize the socio-economic goals of communism. The term ''communist party'' was popularized by the title of ''The Manifesto of the Communist Party'' (1848) by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. A ...
election booth right in front of the Hotel Nuevo Mundo, which housed large numbers of foreigners, especially Americans. The intention was clear: to create an image of democracy to be recognized by the rest of the world as a legitimate president. He went to the lengths of holding presidential elections in
1935 Events January * January 7 – Italian premier Benito Mussolini and French Foreign Minister Pierre Laval conclude Franco-Italian Agreement of 1935, an agreement, in which each power agrees not to oppose the other's colonial claims. * ...
,
1939 This year also marks the start of the Second World War, the largest and deadliest conflict in human history. Events Below, the events of World War II have the "WWII" prefix. January * January 1 ** Third Reich *** Jews are forbidden to ...
, and
1944 Events Below, the events of World War II have the "WWII" prefix. January * January 2 – WWII: ** Free French General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny is appointed to command French Army B, part of the Sixth United States Army Group in Nor ...
, and legislative elections in
1936 Events January–February * January 20 – George V of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Emperor of India, dies at his Sandringham Estate. The Prince of Wales succeeds to the throne of the United Kingdom as King E ...
, 1939 Salvadoran Constitutional Assembly election, 1939, 1944 Salvadoran Constitutional Assembly election, 1944, however, he was the only candidate, he always won 100% of the vote, and his
National Pro Patria Party The National Party of the Fatherland ( es, Partido Nacional "Pro-Patria"), usually translated as the National Pro Patria Party or simply the Pro Patria Party, was a far-right political party which was the sole-legal political party in El Salva ...
was the only legal political party. However, the main criticism of his government is the excessive use of force. He used unorthodox repressive methods characterized by violence and disrespect for the integrity of the individual.


End of Hernández Martínez's government

Given that Hernández Martínez intended to extend his mandate beyond 1944, the military, also dissatisfied with the shooting of opposition officers, rose up against the ruler, and forced him to capitulate in three days. In 1943, Hernández Martínez tried to increase the tax rates on exports to obtain more income for the State, and this broke the relationship he had with the oligarch groups. It was then that civil society, demonstrating against the mass executions of raised officers, rebelled through a sit -down strike that led to the resignation of the dictator.


Palm Sunday Coup

In response, an armed revolt broke out on Palm Sunday, 2 April 1944, led by intellectuals, business leaders and disloyal segments of the military. While top members of the regime leadership were at home for Holy Week, the strategic First Infantry and the Second Artillery regiments of San Salvador and Santa Ana garrison seized the state radio station, took control of the Air Force and seized Santa Ana's police headquarters and telegraph offices. Santa Ana was bombed from the air as civilians below rallied, overthrew and replaced their city council. However, Gen. Hernández Martínez was able to put down the rebellion with his remaining obedient military units. Martial law, including a police curfew, was declared in effect and savagely enforced. Reprisals against rebels and suspected rebels began right away and lasted for weeks in a highly public and distressing campaign of repression. More than 100 civilians were shot dead in street demonstrations by the army.


Strike of Fallen Arms

Soon after, however, in May 1944, Hernández Martínez was deposed by the Strike of Fallen Arms led by students. Their strategy was to avoid direct confrontation with the regime's soldiers by simply, passively, non-violently staying home. During this massive political action, Salvadoran society was completely paralysed until he was deposed. Doctors and other professionals joined on May 5, successfully turning it into a general strike. On May 7 police fired into a group of youths, and fatally struck a 17-year-old who happened to be a U.S. citizen. This increased the pressure on the regime. After attempting to negotiate a later departure date, Hernández Martínez resigned on 9 May and had Andrés Ignacio Menéndez appointed as Provisional President. By May 11 the strike was over and he had fled to exile in
Guatemala Guatemala ( ; ), officially the Republic of Guatemala ( es, República de Guatemala, links=no), is a country in Central America. It is bordered to the north and west by Mexico; to the northeast by Belize and the Caribbean; to the east by H ...
. The revolt then Guatemalan Revolution, spread to
Guatemala Guatemala ( ; ), officially the Republic of Guatemala ( es, República de Guatemala, links=no), is a country in Central America. It is bordered to the north and west by Mexico; to the northeast by Belize and the Caribbean; to the east by H ...
, where the similar military leader
Jorge Ubico Jorge Ubico Castañeda (10 November 1878 – 14 June 1946), nicknamed Number Five or also Central America's Napoleon, was a Guatemalan dictator. A general in the Guatemalan army, he was elected to the presidency in 1931, in an election where ...
was also forced to resign by 1 July.


Death

After being deposed, Hernández Martínez traveled to exile in
Guatemala Guatemala ( ; ), officially the Republic of Guatemala ( es, República de Guatemala, links=no), is a country in Central America. It is bordered to the north and west by Mexico; to the northeast by Belize and the Caribbean; to the east by H ...
and then later Honduras where he lived until he was stabbed to death at Hacienda Jamastrán, on 15 May 1966, by his taxi driver, Cipriano Morales, whose father had been murdered by Hernández Martínez's dictatorship. He remains one of the oldest politicians to be assassinated.


Personal life

Hernández Martínez married Concepción Monteagudo and they had eight children: Alberto, Carmen, Esperanza, Marina, Eduardo, Rosa, Gloria, and Maximiliano. His relationship with his family became strained as he strayed from his family's religion, Catholic Church, Roman Catholicism, and became a Theosophy, theosophist. He was a vegetarian due to his religious beliefs. He was a believer in fringe occultism. He was abstemious, a habit that was strictly instilled in him by his father. When a
smallpox Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus) which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) c ...
epidemic broke out in San Salvador he had colored lights hung around the city, in the belief that this would cure the disease. He also believed in reincarnation and once stated, "it is a greater crime to kill an ant than a man, for when a man dies he becomes reincarnated, while an ant dies forever".


Legacy

Much of El Salvador is still divided over the legacy of Hernández Martínez's tenure. While El Salvador had seen economic growth during his leadership and he was admired by the wealthy elite, the country experienced widespread social unrest, most significantly the 1932 Salvadoran peasant massacre, where 25,000 people were sentenced to death, many just for having an indigenous appearance. Those who were captured alive were sent to trial and inevitably sentenced to death. In terms of civil rights, his record was mixed. He expanded voting rights to women for the first time, enacted some social security programs, and attempted to manage the economy, in contrast to the economic policies of Liberal regimes that had ruled El Salvador since the 1870s. But his regime censored the media, banned political opposition, abolished local elections, rigged national elections, and brutally killed thousands of dissidents and innocents. During the country's Salvadoran Civil War, civil war from 1979 to 1992, an Far-extreme right-wing death squad named after him, called the "Right-wing paramilitarism in El Salvador, Maximiliano Hernández Martínez Anti-Communist Brigade," operated in the country and claimed responsibility for the assassination of many Christian Democratic Party (El Salvador), Christian Democrat and Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front, Marxist politicians as well as innocent civilians in
El Salvador El Salvador (; , meaning " The Saviour"), officially the Republic of El Salvador ( es, República de El Salvador), is a country in Central America. It is bordered on the northeast by Honduras, on the northwest by Guatemala, and on the south b ...
in 1980.


Awards and decorations

* Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (Belgium), Order of Leopold * Grand Cross of the Order of the Quetzal * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Illustrious Dragon * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Pillars of State Francoist Spain, Spain * Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic * Cruz de Guerra for officials and subofficials


See also

* Military dictatorship in El Salvador


References


Citations


Bibliography

* * * * *


External links


Maximiliano Hernández Martínez. Presidente 1931–1944 (2003)
University of Central America {{DEFAULTSORT:Hernandez Martinez, Maximiliano 1882 births 1966 deaths People from La Libertad Department (El Salvador) Salvadoran people of Spanish descent Presidents of El Salvador Vice presidents of El Salvador Defence ministers of El Salvador Salvadoran anti-communists Salvadoran Theosophists Leaders who took power by coup World War II political leaders Assassinated Salvadoran politicians Salvadoran people murdered abroad People murdered in Honduras Deaths by stabbing in Honduras Salvadoran military personnel Salvadoran exiles Salvadoran expatriates in Honduras Assassinated people Politicide perpetrators Genocide perpetrators Leaders ousted by a coup Salvadoran nationalists People from San Salvador Fascist rulers 1966 murders in North America Fascism in El Salvador